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2008年4月24日
Tibet Xizang's History
Tibet Xizang's History
Tibet Xizang Early History
Evidence of human habitation dating between 12,000 and 11,000 years ago has been found in NW Tibet Xizang, and in S Tibet Xizang the Yarlung Zangbo valley was, over the centuries, the focus of ancient trade routes from India, China, and Central Asia. Tibet Xizang emerged from an obscure history to flourish in the 7th cent. A.D. as an independent kingdom with its capital at Lhasa. The Chinese first established relations with Tibet Xizang during the T'ang dynasty (618–906), and there were frequent wars of conquest. TheTibetan kingdom was associated with early Mahayana Buddhism, which the scholar and mystic Padmasambhava fashioned (8th cent.) into Tibet Xizangan Buddhism. Toward the end of the 12th cent. many Indian Buddhists, fleeing before the Muslim invasion, went to Tibet Xizang. In the 13th cent. Tibet Xizang fell under Mongol influence, which was to last until the 18th cent. In 1270, Kublai Khan, emperor of China, was converted to Buddhism by the abbot of the Sakya lamasery; the abbot returned to Tibet Xizang to found the Sakya dynasty (1270–1340) and to become the first lama to rule Tibet Xizang. In 1720, the Ch'ing dynasty replaced Mongol rule in Tibet Xizang. China thereafter claimed suzerainty, often merely nominal.
Tibet Xizang Foreign Contacts
During the 18th cent., British authorities in India attempted to establish relations with Lhasa, but the Gurkha invasion of 1788 and the subsequent Gurkha war (1792) with Tibet Xizang brought an abrupt end to the rapprochement. Jesuits and Capuchins had visited Tibet Xizang in the 17th and 18th cent., but throughout the 19th cent. Tibet Xizang maintained its traditional seclusion. Meanwhile, Ladakh, long part of Tibet Xizang, was lost to the rulers of Kashmir, and Sikkim was detached (1890) by Britain. In 1893, Britain succeeded in obtaining a trading post at Yadong, but continued Tibetan interference led to the military expedition (1904) of Sir Francis Younghusband to Lhasa, which enforced the granting of trade posts at Yadong, Gyangzê, and Gar.
Tibet Xizang and China
In 1906 and 1907, Britain recognized China's suzerainty over Tibet Xizang. However, theTibetans were able, with the overthrow of the Ch'ing dynasty in China, to expel (1912) the Chinese in Tibet Xizang and reassert their independence. At a conference (1913–14) of British,Tibetans, and Chinese at Shimla, India, Tibet Xizang was tentatively confirmed under Chinese suzerainty and divided into an inner Tibet Xizang, to be incorporated into China, and an outer autonomous Tibet Xizang. The Shimla agreement was, however, never ratified by the Chinese, who continued to claim all of Tibet Xizang as a “special territory.” After the death (1933) of the 13th Dalai Lama, Tibet Xizang gradually drifted back into the Chinese orbit. The 14th Dalai Lama, who was born in China, was installed in 1939–40 and assumed full powers (1950) after a ten-year regency.
The succession of the 10th Panchen Lama, with rival candidates supported by Tibet Xizang and China, was one of the excuses for the Chinese invasion (Oct., 1950) of Tibet Xizang. By aTibetan-Chinese agreement (May, 1951), Tibet Xizang became a “national autonomous region” of China under the traditional rule of the Dalai Lama, but under the actual control of a Chinese Communist Commission. The Communist government introduced far-reaching land reforms and sharply curtailed the power of the monastic orders. After 1956 scattered uprisings occurred throughout the country, but a full-scale revolt broke out in Mar., 1959, prompted in part by fears for the personal safety of the Dalai Lama. The Chinese suppressed the rebellion, but the Dalai Lama was able to escape to India, where he eventually established headquarters in exile.
The Panchen Lama, who had accepted Chinese sponsorship, acceded to the spiritual leadership of Tibet Xizang. The Chinese adopted brutal repressive measures, provoking charges from the Dalai Lama of genocide. Landholdings were seized, the lamaseries were virtually emptied, and thousands of monks were forced to find other work. The Panchen Lama was deposed in 1964 after making statements supporting the Dalai Lama; he was replaced by a secular Tibetan leader. In 1962, China launched attacks along the Indian-Tibetan border to consolidate territories it claimed had been wrongly given to India by the British McMahon Commission in 1914. Following a cease-fire, Chinese troops withdrew behind the disputed line in the east but continued to occupy part of Ladakh in Kashmir. Some border areas are still in dispute.
In 1965 the Tibetan Autonomous Region was formally established. The Cultural Revolution, with its antireligious orientation, was disastrous for highly religious Tibet Xizang. Religious practices were banned and over 4,000 monasteries were destroyed. Though the ban was lifted in 1976 and some Buddhist temples have again been in operation since the early 1980s,Tibetans continue to complain of widespread discrimination by the Chinese. Several protests in Tibet Xizang in the late 1980s and early 1990s were violently suppressed by the Communist government and martial law was imposed in 1989. Demonstrations against Chinese rule have nevertheless continued. Moreover, in recent years other countries have increasingly raised the issue of human-rights violations in Tibet Xizang, and have pressured the Chinese government to moderate their stance in that region. Religious tensions were again underscored in Jan., 2000, when the 14-year-old Karmapa lama fled Tibet Xizang for India.
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